Biodiversity, sustainable utilization, and conservation of the wild plants used in Traditional Mongolian Medicine of the Greater Khingan Mountains | Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine

Diversity of wild plants used in TMM

Taxonomic diversity

A total of 163 wild plant species used in TMM of the GKM are recorded in the Chinese Materia Medica: Mongolian Medicine Volume, belonging to 118 genera and 55 families (Table 3). Among them, 7 species are ferns, 4 species are gymnosperms, and the remaining 152 species are angiosperms.

Based on the variations in species richness among each family, this study classified the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM into five categories: dominant family, large family, medium family, small family, and monotypic family (Table 4).

At the family level, Asteraceae is the most dominant family, represented by 32 species, accounting for 19.63% of the total. Followed by Ranunculaceae as a large family, which contains 12 species, accounting for 7.36% of the total. The medium families include Fabaceae (9), Lamiaceae (8), Gentianaceae (7), Polygonaceae (6), Plantaginaceae (5), Equisetaceae (4), Brassicaceae (4), and Orobanchaceae (4), with a total of 47 species, accounting for 28.83% of the total. Small families and monotypic families involve a total of 45 families and 72 plant species, accounting for 81.82% and 44.17% of the total number of families and species, respectively.

At the genus level, the genera containing 3 or more species include Artemisia (5), Equisetum (4), Rumex (4), Veratrum (3), Scutellaria (3), Ligularia (3), and Leontopodium (3), accounting for 5.93% of all the genera.

The wild plants used in TMM of the GKM are composed mainly of monotypic families and monotypic genera, indicating notable diversity at both the family and genus levels. The survey results of Zhang et al. on the medicinal vascular plants of the GKM similarly identified Asteraceae and Artemisia as the most dominant family and genus, which aligns with our results [51].

Diversity of Mongolian Medicine names

According to the records in the Chinese Materia Medica: Mongolian Medicine Volume, a total of 133 Mongolian Medicine names correspond to the 163 scientific species names. The relationships between them can be categorized as one‒to‒one correspondence, with a total of 109 Mongolian Medicine names corresponding to 109 scientific species names, and one‒to‒multiple correspondence, which means that one Mongolian Medicine name corresponds to multiple scientific species names, with a total of 24 Mongolian Medicine names corresponding to 54 scientific species names. This phenomenon may be associated with the unique therapeutic philosophies of TMM. In long-term clinical practice, the same medicinal parts of certain congeneric and closely related species have been observed to exhibit similar chemical and pharmacological properties, which might explain why they are used interchangeably as the same herb in medical treatments [14]. For example, the roots and rhizomes of Rumex acetosa, R. gmelinii, R. crispus, and R. patientia can all be used as (xʊrgɑn tʃix); the whole plants of Equisetum arvense, E. pratense, and E. sylvaticum can be used as (xuxə: ows); both the aerial parts of Leonurus japonicus and L. sibiricus can be used as (dorwoldʒ ows). This phenomenon reflects the practical and ecological wisdom embedded in Mongolian Medicine, emphasizing functional equivalence among taxonomically related species while optimizing resource utilization.

With respect to the origin of Mongolian Medicine names, in addition to directly naming them in Mongolian (136 species), there are also cases of borrowed names that are derived from other languages, such as Tibetan (9 species), Chinese (6 species) and Sanskrit (12 species). For example, the Mongolian Medicine names of Euphorbia fischeriana (tɑrnʊ:), Aconitum kusnezoffii (bɔŋ a), and Schizonepeta multifida (dʒi:rugbɑ) all originate from Tibetan; the Mongolian Medicine names of Astragalus mongholicus (xʊntʃir) and Scutellaria baicalensis (xʊntʃin) are both derived from Chinese; the Mongolian Medicine names of Dianthus chinensis (gɔj bɑʃɑg) and Parnassia palustris (moŋgon digd) are both derived from Sanskrit.

Diversity of life forms

Following the life form classification system outlined in Vegetation of China [52], the life forms of the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM are classified and statistically analyzed (Fig. 3). The results revealed that herbaceous plants (87.73%) are most frequently used for TMM, which is consistent with previous surveys in different areas of the GKM [53, 54]. The other types include trees, shrubs, woody vines, and subshrubs. These results indicate that despite being predominantly composed of mountainous terrain, the GKM exhibit a relatively low diversity of woody plant species and a high diversity of herbaceous plants, demonstrating the ecological traits characteristic of the Eurasian temperate steppe zone [23, 41]. The results also suggest that herbaceous plants, with their rapid regeneration cycles, form the primary resource base for sustainable utilization. However, their strict habitat requirements and vulnerability to depletion also pose hidden concerns.

Life forms of the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM

Diversity of water ecotypes

The water ecotypes of the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM are categorized into four types based on their adaptability to moisture conditions and in reference to the Vegetation of China [52] (Fig. 4). Among them, mesophytes (77.30%) have an absolute advantage, including typical mesophytes, xero-mesophytes, and hygro-mesophytes. Xerophytes, hygrophytes and hydrophytes are relatively rare. The results indicate that the cold-temperate continental monsoon climate of the GKM provides optimal moisture conditions for the growth of mesophytes.

Water ecotypes of the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM

Diversity of distribution areas

Based on the specimen collection, taxonomic identification, and synthesis of distribution records from the Flora of the Greater Xing’an Mountains [23], Flora Intramongolica [43], and Flora of Mongolia [44], we sorted out the exact distribution of each plant species. The statistical results indicate that the southern regions have the greatest diversity of the wild plant species used in Traditional Mongolian Medicine. With the exception of Veratrum dahuricum and Veronica anagalloides, the other 161 species are distributed in this region. In comparison, there was no significant difference in the number of species in the northern, eastern, and western regions (Fig. 5). The wild plants used in TMM of the GKM generally have strong habitat adaptability and relatively low requirements for the growing environment, so they can be widely distributed in various regions. However, some species exhibit markedly restricted ranges, such as Pyrrosia davidii, Pinus tabuliformis, Juniperus rigida, Xanthoceras sorbifolium, Rhododendron micranthum, Swertia erythrosticta, Anaphalis hancockii, and Conioselinum smithii, which are confined to the southern regions; Veronica anagalloides is exclusively distributed in the eastern regions.

Species number of the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM in different regions

The predominance of the wild plants used in TMM in the southern regions may be attributed to climatic, vegetational, and anthropogenic factors. Climatically, the southern regions benefit from a temperate climate characterized by warmth, humidity, and diverse soil types, creating optimal conditions for plant growth. In contrast, the northern regions face colder temperatures and permafrost-affected soils, which hinder the survival of some species. Vegetation types also play a critical role: the southern regions feature a forest-steppe ecotone that blends forest and grassland ecosystems, offering heterogeneous habitats that support the species diversity and richness of the medicinal plants. Conversely, the northern regions are dominated by homogeneous boreal forests with a single vegetation community and high forest coverage that limit understorey diversity. Human activities further amplify this pattern. As the primary settlement area of the Mongolian ethnic group, the southern regions have a long history of ethnobotanical practices. Local communities have actively utilized and preserved wild plant resources for medicinal purposes, enriching plant diversity through centuries of traditional knowledge and sustainable use. Under the synergistic effects of these factors, the species in the southern regions are more diverse and abundant than those in other regions.

Diversity of medicinal parts

In TMM, medicinal plants are categorized based on their used parts into whole plants, roots and rhizomes, stems and woods, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds, and resins [14]. Following this classification method, we analyzed the medicinal parts of the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM. For the species with multiple utilized parts, the frequency of each part was accumulated (Fig. 6).

Used parts of the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM

The statistical results reveal that in the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM, the utilization of whole plants (46.11%) is the highest, followed by roots and rhizomes (25.75%), and fruits and seeds (11.98%), while the utilization of barks (0.60%) and resins (0.60%) is relatively low.

The multi-part utilization of the same medicinal plant is a common feature of many ethnic medicines, and TMM is no exception. Among the studied species, Aconitum kusnezoffii has three different medicinal parts, including the caudex, leaves, and seedlings, all of which can be used as medicine. In addition, there are two plant species with two different medicinal parts, namely the woods or fresh branches and leaves of Xanthoceras sorbifolium, and the whole plants or roots and rhizomes of the Physochlaina physaloides.

Although the medicinal parts of the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM have shown hidden dangers that are not conducive to the regeneration and sustainable utilization of local medicinal plant resources, the large-scale cultivation and development of geo-authentic Mongolian medicinal herbs in recent years have effectively alleviated and compensated for these concerns, providing favorable guarantees for the sustainable development of the wild plant resources used in TMM.

Diversity of the collection seasons

Seasonal variations are a periodic sequence that affects the availability of active ingredients in medicinal plants, hence affecting their therapeutic efficacy [55]. In contemporary Mongolian medicinal practices, the process of harvesting follows traditional empirical knowledge aligned with the maturation stages of plant medicinal parts to achieve timely harvesting, aiming to optimize the yield and quality of bioactive compounds that fluctuate seasonally. Meteorologically, the Northern Hemisphere seasons are divided into spring (March‒May), summer (June‒August), autumn (September‒November), and winter (December‒February). According to this classification, we analyzed the collection seasons for the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM, with overlapping counts for species collected in multiple seasons. The results revealed that autumn emerges as the peak collection season, involving a total of 112 species, followed by summer (95 species), spring (43 species), and winter (6 species).

Roots and rhizomes are typically collected during the autumn and winter when aerial parts wither or before germination in early spring. While autumn harvesting is particularly preferable, as at this time, the nutrients stored in the roots or rhizomes are abundant, and the content of active ingredients is usually high, such as Acorus calamus, Aconitum kusnezoffii, Sophora flavescens, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Rubia cordifolia, Platycodon grandiflorus. Whole plants, such as Parnassia palustris, Dianthus chinensis, D. superbus, Dracocephalum moldavica, Pedicularis resupinata, Cirsium esculentum, Picris japonica, are usually collected during the vigorous growth of plants in summer or the early flowering period in autumn; early-blooming plants, such as Pulsatilla chinensis, Taraxacum mongolicum, and Ligularia sibirica, are collected during spring flowering or early flowering; when the seedlings of Aconitum kusnezoffii and Artemisia scoparia grow 10 cm in spring, the aerial parts are harvested. Fruits and seeds are generally collected in summer or autumn at full ripeness, such as the fruit of Cnidium monnieri is collected when it matures and turns yellow in summer. The bark of Phellodendron amurense is suitable for collection from late spring to early summer when heightened cambium activity eases separation from the wood and accelerates wound healing. The collection time of branches and leaves of Viscum coloratum is generally in the winter, as cold conditions enhance active ingredients such as flavonoids accumulation, amplifying their medicinal potency.

Utilization of wild plants used in TMM

Mongolian folk utilization

Statistical analysis revealed that among the 163 wild plants used in TMM of the GKM, 92 species were used by local Mongolian folk, accounting for 56.44% of the total. High-frequency utilized species by Mongolian folk include Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Ephedra sinica, Sophora flavescens, Leonurus sibiricus, Taraxacum mongolicum, Dianthus chinensis, Delphinium grandiflorum, and Artemisia argyi (Fig. 7), which are associated with the distribution of plant resources, localized ethnomedicinal perception and knowledge, and prevalent healthcare needs. The survey results indicated that the selection of medicinal plant species by local Mongolian folk is highly consistent with that of TMM in the study area, reflecting the extensive application of local medicinal wild plant resources in the practice of MFM, which also confirms that traditional knowledge of MFM and TMM belongs to the same medical system.

Plant species used by local Mongolian folk and their utilization frequency in 7 Banners

Among these 92 species used by local Mongolian folk, the medicinal parts of 31 species are identical to those in TMM, and 36 species partially similar to those in TMM, and the 25 species are different from those in TMM. However, this does not fully illustrate the issue, as the therapeutic efficacy of medicinal plants is closely related to their used parts. For example, Paeonia lactiflora demonstrates consistent utilization by local Mongolian folk across 5 surveyed Banners, all of which use the roots primarily for the treatment of blood-heat syndrome and gynecological disorders, aligning with therapeutic indications documented in TMM. However, the medicinal parts of Medicago ruthenica, Agriophyllum squarrosum and Crepidiastrum sonchifolium are the same as the records in TMM, but their efficacies are totally different from those in TMM. For most plants, their effects are partially similar to TMM while partially different (Table 5).

The medicinal parts and effects of 8 species, such as Equisetum arvense, Pyrrosia davidii, Pinus tabuliformis, Morus mongolica, Pedicularis striata, Echinops davuricus, Neopallasia pectinata and Sambucus williamsii, are different from the records in TMM. For example, the aerial parts of Equisetum arvense are used by local Mongolian folk for treating diarrhea, while its whole plants are used in TMM for treating bladder stones, edema, trauma, menorrhagia, epistaxis, and hematemesis. The whole plants of Pyrrosia davidii are used by local Mongolian folk for treating headache and blood circulation disorders, whereas its leaves are used in TMM to treat fractures, meridian injuries, burns, swelling pain, and poisoning. The seed’s white peel of Morus mongolica is used for cold and cough by local Mongolian folk, while its fruits are used to clear bone heat and provide nourishment in TMM.

Differences in wild plant utilization exist not only between MFM and TMM, but also among different regions of the GKM. For example, as a plant with high utilization frequency in local MFM, Ephedra sinica is used by the Mongolian folk in 6 Banners. In Bairin Left Banner [25, 31], the whole plants of E. sinica are incorporated into medicinal bath (ɑrʃɑ:n dʒɑsɑl), utilized for expelling cold, clearing heat, and treating rheumatic arthralgia and (ʃɑr) disease; its roots are water-decocted for oral administration to treat pediatric cold-type (xi:). In Ar Horqin Banner [27, 28], the stem water-decoction is used for medicinal bathing to treat skin diseases, or taken orally to treat cold-induced fever; the aerial part water-decoction is used for bathing to treat infantile cold-type (xi:), or taken orally for liver diseases. In Hexigten Banner [29], the whole plants are used for stopping bleeding, relieving cough, clearing liver heat, treating various hemorrhages and cold-induced fever; the roots used to treat rheumatic lumbocrural pain. In Horqin Right Middle Banner [33], the whole plants are used for cough. In Jarud Banner [32], the herbaceous stems or roots are used to clear liver heat, stop bleeding, resolve stagnation, heal wounds, reduce swelling, and induce sweating. In Bairin Right Banner [35], the roots clear liver heat and induce sweating.

In TMM, the leaves of Artemisia argyi are used for hemostasis, reducing swelling, and subduing abscesses and carbuncles, as well as treating various hemorrhages [14]. In Hexigten Banner [29], fresh leaves are mechanically mashed and daubing onto edematous areas to reduce swelling. In Jarud Banner [32], the whole plants are processed into an water-decoction for oral administration or cephalic cleansing solution to alleviate swelling and headache, or medicinal bathing for treating chickenpox; water-decoction is also used for children’s full-body bathing to aid digestion, clear heat, detoxify, and enhance physique, while also treating chickenpox. In Jalaid Banner [34], sun-dried whole plants are steeped for external use or applied for moxibustion to dispel liver fire and treat skin diseases. In Horqin Right Middle Banner [33], the leaves treat (xi:) disease, and the whole plants treat gynecological disorders. In Bairin Left Banner [25, 31], whole plant water-decoction is used in thermal spa treatment for dispelling coldness, and disinfection; it is also patted on the forehead to relieve headache.

In terms of processing methods, local Mongolian folk uses unique detoxification processing methods for some specific plants. For example, the roots and rhizomes of Veratrum nigrum are processed into an ointment for emetic, or stir-fried with barley for purgative indications in TMM; while the local Mongolian folk boils its roots in cow’s milk, dries them after removal, which uses for purgative indications [29]. In TMM, the roots of Euphorbia fischeriana are processed by soaking in cow’s milk or white liquor followed by drying, whereas local Mongolian folk soak them in cow’s urine for 3‒5 days besides using white liquor [29]. The whole plants of Leonurus sibiricus are incinerated to ashes, then mixed with butter (ʃɑr tɔs) and applied to suppurative wounds [34], which is not recorded in TMM. Additionally, folk processing methods such as soaking rhizomes of Polygonatum odoratum, roots and rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza uralensis in cow’s milk, soaking roots of Stellera chamaejasme in goat’s milk, and boiling rhizomes of Polygonatum sibiricum and tubers of Gymnadenia conopsea in cow’s milk and then removed and dried are consistent with TMM [29]. The uses of cow’s milk, goat’s milk, and butter (ʃɑr tɔs) embody the fusion of pastoral products with medicinal practices, and demonstrate the intimate association between local folk medicine and regional environmental contexts of the GKM.

Both TMM and MFM share a nomadic cultural foundation in ecological adaptation and pastoral resource use, but differ in their knowledge systems. TMM as institutionalized, text-based practice integrating cross-cultural theories, and MFM as oral, empiric traditions with regional variations, highlighting the need to preserve grassroots knowledge for medicinal heritage continuity.

According to our statistical analysis, 71 plant species lack documented folk utilization knowledge. The current evidence cannot determine whether these species are genuinely unused by local Mongolians or if their applications remain unrecorded. Future ethnobotanical investigations should prioritize identifying and documenting more medicinal plants and their traditional utilization knowledge within the study area, especially northern region of the GKM. Crucially, folk medicinal practices predominantly exist through oral transmission forms. Undocumented knowledge faces the risk of permanent loss with the passing of knowledge bearers, unless systematically preserved. Such preservation efforts could contribute to safeguarding the continuity of Mongolian medicinal cultural heritage.

Industrial-scale utilization of Mongolian Medicine

The statistical results showed that 69 species were industrially utilized by Mongolian pharmaceutical enterprises, accounting for 42.33% of the total. Among them, 3 species, Aconitum kusnezoffii, Sophora flavescens, and Glycyrrhiza uralensis, are commonly used by all five surveyed enterprises; 14 species are used by four enterprises, namely Ephedra sinica, E. equisetina, Acorus calamus, Tribulus terrestris, Rubus sachalinensis, Lepidium apetalum, Descurainia sophia, Bistorta officinalis, Dianthus superbus, D. chinensis, Rubia cordifolia, Leonurus japonicus, Inula britannica, and I. japonica. These plants represent the most frequently used herbs in TMM, with some species integrated into multiple formulations. For instance, Glycyrrhiza uralensis is beneficial in 10 distinct formulas by Inner Mongolia Aoteqi Mongolian Medicine Co., Ltd., Dianthus superbus and D. chinensis appear in 12 formulas, and Scabiosa comosa appears in 7 formulas, reflecting their high medicinal values.

Some Mongolian pharmaceutical enterprises have established specialized medicinal herb planting bases for locally adaptable species, achieving self-sufficiency in geo-authentic Mongolian medicinal herbs such as Astragalus mongholicus, Sophora flavescens, Platycodon grandiflorus, Glycyrrhiza uralensis, and Scutellaria baicalensis. The cultivation practices are transitioning from traditional individual planting to standardized, large-scale planting. However, regional ecology and the environment limit cultivation to locally viable species, necessitating the external procurement of large procurement volume, non-native, precious and scarce medicinal herbs.

In recent years, Inner Mongolia has constructed a large number of planting bases for Chinese and Mongolian medicinal herbs [56], such as the Xilingol League Mongolian Medicinal R&D Base, which was established in 2017, including standardized planting bases, germplasm resource bases, and seed and seedling bases for characteristic Mongolian medicinal herbs such as Astragalus mongholicus, Physochlaina physaloides, Lomatogonium rotatum, and Gentiana dahurica, and has also introduced, domesticated, and cultivated some species like Physochlaina physaloides and Lomatogonium rotatum, providing favorable guarantees for the conservation and sustainable development of local wild plant resources used in TMM [57,58,59,60].

The planting scale in the northern forest area of the GKM has rapidly expanded, which is concentrated on the ecological cultivation of wild medicinal plants such as Schisandra chinensis, Trollius chinensis, Paeonia lactiflora, Astragalus membranaceus, and Platycodon grandiflorus. For instance, Schisandra chinensis, as an important medicinal herb in the Mongolian Medicine system, has the effects of anti-diarrheal, anti-emetic, appetite-stimulating, and anti-asthmatic properties [14]. Recent research has further revealed its various pharmacological activities, such as antioxidant, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, and cardiovascular function improvement effects [61]. Jiwen Forest Industry Company and Tahe Forestry Bureau, located in the northern forest area of the GKM, actively pioneered understorey resource utilization, and vigorously developed characteristic planting industries mainly based on wild S. chinensis, which have excellent quality and strong medicinal properties, and are revered as the “crown jewel” of S. chinensis. Concurrently, they also attach great importance to the conservation of wild S. chinensis resources, established conservation bases in densely populated wild habitats, implementing measures to enhance yield and quality, striving to achieve sustainable development of plant resources.

Underutilized species

Notably, among the 163 wild plants used in TMM of the GKM, 50 species have not been utilized by either local Mongolian folk or Mongolian Medicine pharmaceutical enterprises, accounting for 30.67% of the total (Fig. 8). The distribution area may limit the utilization of some of these plants, such as Swertia erythrosticta, Anaphalis hancockii, and Conioselinum smithii, are only distributed in Hexigten Banner, and Veronica anagalloides is only distributed in Morin Dawa Daur Autonomous Banner. While most of these species are widely distributed in the GKM, and 6 of these species, including Viscum coloratum, Swertia pseudochinensis, Adenophora triphylla, Taraxacum sinicum, Cnidium monnieri, and Imperata cylindrica var. major, are recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia [62], indicating their substantial medicinal value. It is recommended to conduct systematic investigations and targeted exploration of these underutilized species through pharmacological profiling, bioactive compound identification, and mechanism-of-action studies, aiming to maximize their utilization potential.

Utilized status of the wild plants used in TMM of GKM and its species number

Integrated assessment

Results of the consistency test and weight prioritization

The consistency test was conducted on the pairwise comparison matrices established at each layer in the integrated assessment model. The results (Table 6) demonstrate that all the matrices exhibit satisfactory consistency (CR < 0.1), confirming the model’s reliability and validity.

By using the hierarchical total ranking weight calculation method, the total ranking weight values of the C layer and P layer for the T layer were derived (Table 7).

The hierarchical total ranking weights reveal that within the C layer, C₂ (exploitation and utilization value) holds the highest priority, followed by C₁ (resource value) and C₃ (ecological value). The results indicate that the exploitation potential and practical value of medicinal plant resources exert the strongest influence on decision-making, while ecological considerations play a relatively minor role in current utilization strategies. Consequently, prioritizing species with high industrial and traditional application potential is critical for sustainable development in the GKM.

Among the 9 criteria in the P layer, P₅ (utilization of Mongolian Medicine pharmaceutical enterprises), P₁ (medicinal parts), P₆ (utilization of Mongolian folk), and P₂ (distribution areas) have significant impacts on the exploitation and utilization of the wild plant resources used in TMM of the GKM, which means that the high frequency of utilization, more parts used in medicine, and widely distributed areas of species demonstrate the highest development potential of plant resources.

Integrated assessment value (IAV)

Based on the allocation of IAV (see Supplementary file 1) and direct experience, the exploitation and utilization values of 163 wild plants used in TMM of the GKM are divided into four grades:

Highest value (IAV ≥ 3.5): 36 species;

High value (3 ≤ IAV < 3.5): 28 species;

General value (2.5 ≤ IAV < 3): 69 species;

Low value (IAV < 2.5): 30 species.

The IAV reflects important wild plants used in TMM in this region (Fig. 9). There are 36 species, such as Glycyrrhiza uralensis, Aconitum kusnezoffii, Dianthus chinensis, Sophora flavescens, Dianthus superbus, Euphorbia humifusa, Ephedra sinica, and Dracocephalum moldavica, with the highest exploitation value, substantially characterized by extensive utilization by both Mongolian Medicine pharmaceutical enterprises and local Mongolian folk, significant medicinal value, and wide distribution. For example, Ephedra sinica, a historically significant medicinal species recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia [62], is utilized for its herbaceous stems with the functions of clearing liver heat, arresting hemorrhage, dissipating abdominal masses, reducing edema, promoting wound healing, and inducing diaphoresis. It is not only utilized by multiple Mongolian pharmaceutical enterprises, but also widely and diversely used among the Mongolian folk. Despite its high utilization, E. sinica is classified as a near threatened species in the Red List of China’s biodiversity [63], which means that the wild populations are experiencing a decline, rendering it ecologically vulnerable and necessitating immediate conservation measures. The highest value species also include cultivated geo-authentic medicinal plants like Sophora flavescens, Platycodon grandiflorus, Paeonia lactiflora, and National Protected Plants in China (level II) like Gymnadenia conopsea [64], as well as specialized Mongolian medicinal herbs like Acorus calamus, Artemisia frigida, Aleuritopteris argentea, Rubus sachalinensis, and Scabiosa comosa.

Parts of the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM (a. Aconitum kusnezoffii, b. Paeonia lactiflora, c. Trollius chinensis, d. Lilium pumilum, e. Rhododendron micranthum, f. Quercus mongolica, g. Sophora flavescens, h. Ephedra sinica, i. Glycyrrhiza uralensis, j. Gymnadenia conopsea, k. Phellodendron amurense, l. Schisandra chinensis). Photos were taken by Liqing Zhao

Certain plants, despite receiving lower integrated assessment grades due to specific limiting factors, possess significant medicinal value that cannot be overlooked. For example, the woods, branches and leaves of Xanthoceras sorbifolium are specialized herbs in TMM, with the functions of drying (Mongolian medical term for pathological dampness), clearing heat, reducing edema, and alleviating pain. Xanthoceras ointment, a classic Mongolian medicine composed of X. sorbifolium, Coptis chinensis, and Bezoar, has demonstrated efficacy in treating eczema through anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipruritic mechanisms in recent research [65]. Recent clinical trials further highlight the remarkable therapeutic effects of the Mongolian medicine Sendeng-4 Decoction, which is composed of Xanthoceras sorbifolium ( in Mongolian), Terminalia chebula, Gardenia jasminoides, and Melia azedarach, on vulvar lichen sclerosus [66]. These findings underscore Xanthoceras sorbifolium as a high-quality Mongolian medicinal herb with high untapped potential value. However, due to its limited distribution, which is rarely distributed in the southern regions, and utilization by only 3 Mongolian pharmaceutical enterprises, it is classified as a general value species.

Lilium pumilum is a Mongolian medicine infused with bulbs, which has the effects of clearing heat, detoxifying, promoting bone healing, wound healing, hemostasis, drying , and relieving cough. It has been recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Local Mongolians traditionally use the bulb of L. pumilum as a folk remedy: crushed bulbs are applied topically to treat wounds [32]; a decoction prepared from its roots or flowers is orally administered to treat cough, pneumonia, and hypertension [33, 34]. Despite its widespread distribution and rich resource base in the GKM, L. pumilum remains unexploited by Mongolian pharmaceutical enterprises. Consequently, it is rated as a general value species in the integrated assessment system, reflecting its untapped potential despite significant medicinal promise.

Quercus mongolica, a general value species, serves as the dominant species in the summer-green broad-leaved forests of the eastern foothills and southern mountainous areas of the GKM, and also extends into the northern mountainous areas, where it forms coniferous-broad-leaved mixed forests with Larix gmelinii [36]. The fruits of Q. mongolica are utilized in Mongolian medicine, clinically indicated for bloody dysentery, abdominal pain, intestinal stabbing pain, and heat-type diarrhea. Local Mongolian folk used its seeds, ground into powder and taken orally, to thin blood, treat blood-heat-induced swelling, and exert hypotensive effects [31]; the decoction of seeds is consumed to clear blood-heat, relieve dysentery, treat disease, and heat-cold diarrhea [29, 32]; the leaves are employed to clear heat and tonify the kidneys [31]. Modern studies have confirmed its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties [67, 68], highlighting its significant development potential. Owing to its wide distribution and abundant resource reserves in the GKM, Q. mongolica is amenable to artificial cultivation to expand its populations, which could enable efficient utilization while maintaining ecological balance and resource sustainability.

Additionally, several species rated as low value species, such as Stellera chamaejasme, Adenophora triphylla, Phlomoides tuberosa, Sambucus williamsii, and Morus mongolica, present high medicinal value and are widely distributed across the GKM. However, they remain underutilized due to limited industrial attention.

Overall, the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM exhibit considerable development potential. To unlock this potential sustainably, effective conservation measures should be prioritized. Only on this foundation can large-scale cultivation, introduction, or commercial exploitation proceed without compromising ecological integrity.

Conservation and sustainable utilization

Threatened status and conservation level

According to the Red List of China’s biodiversity — higher plants (2020) [63], among the 163 wild plants used in TMM of the GKM, 9 species are threatened in different statuses (Table 8), including 1 endangered species, 3 vulnerable species, and 5 near threatened species. Additionally, 148 species are categorized as least concern, 4 species data deficient (Equisetum sylvaticum, Acorus calamus, Eritrichium pauciflorum, and Sambucus sibirica), and 2 species (Astragalus membranaceus and Rubus sachalinensis) are not assessed in the Red List. Furthermore, 4 species are listed in the National Key Conservation List for Wild Plants of China [64], all of which are national level II protected plants in China (Table 8).

The threatened and protected plants account for only 5.52% of the total species, indicating that a significant majority of the species remain underprotected and require urgent conservation efforts, particularly those with high developmental and medicinal value, and significant market demand. To address this, we recommend launching a comprehensive specialized survey and establishing a dedicated protection list of wild plants used in TMM.

Conservation strategies and sustainable utilization

For the conservation and sustainable utilization of the wild plants used in TMM of the GKM, several conservation strategies, resource management, and the accompanying regulation and publicity should be fully taken into consideration. In situ conservation and ex situ conservation represent two fundamental global strategies for protecting wild medicinal plant resources. In situ conservation, which is implemented through the establishment of nature reserves and species-specific conservation points is universally acknowledged as the most effective approach for safeguarding plant biodiversity and preserving natural habitats, while also establishing the link between resource conservation and sustainable utilization [55]. By unveiling the biodiversity values of wild plants used in TMM of the GKM and their sustainable utilization strategies, our study can provide a scientific basis for constructing community-based conservation models that balance ecosystem resilience maintenance and the excavation of traditional medicine’s modern public health values, holding forward-looking guiding significance for addressing future regional environmental changes and the sustainable supply of grassroots medical resources.

Function of nature reserves

Nature reserves serve as essential bases for protecting, developing, rationally utilizing, and rehabilitating environmental complexes and the integrity of natural resources. The GKM, a vital ecological barrier and biodiversity hotspot in China, encompass multiple nature reserves, including 20 national nature reserves, 15 provincial nature reserves, and 24 municipal nature reserves [69]. Collectively, these 59 nature reserves cover a total area of 38,513.37 km² [69], accounting for 10.27% of the total area of the GKM. While these nature reserves have significantly contributed to medicinal plant conservation, persistent challenges such as illegal harvesting, overgrazing, and habitat degradation continue to threaten resource sustainability. For instance, Liu’s research [53] documents ongoing clandestine and indiscriminate medicinal plant collection within the Gogostai Hanwula National Nature Reserve despite enhanced protective measures, while Soyolt reports that excessive livestock grazing and herb harvesting by local communities have exacerbated ecological fragility and degraded wild plant resources in the Arhorchin National Nature Reserve [28].

To address these issues, enhanced management and monitoring of existing nature reserves are imperative, through establishing professional management teams equipped with advanced monitoring technologies to conduct real-time tracking of population sizes, distribution ranges, and growth conditions of wild plants used in TMM within reserves. Such data-driven approaches will inform adaptive conservation strategies. Furthermore, the scientific expansion of reserve boundaries is recommended to incorporate areas with high ecological and medicinal value. Functional zoning within reserves, clearly demarcating core zones, buffer zones, and experimental zones, should be optimized to ensure effective protection of wild plants.

Species-specific conservation points

To systematically conserve wild plants used in TMM of the GKM, priority multi-level species-specific conservation points and wild nurturing bases should be established for geo-authentic Mongolian medicinal herbs with high utilization demands and developmental value. Scientific conservation and nurturing measures will not only preserve natural habitats but also stabilize supply chains for the development of the Mongolian Medicine industry. For example, recent initiatives in Daxing’anling Prefecture, Heilongjiang Province at northern GKM have focused on establishing wild nurseries for key species such as Schisandra chinensis, Trollius chinensis, Paeonia lactiflora, and Astragalus membranaceus, effectively safeguarding the germplasm resources and ecological environment of geo-authentic medicinal herbs.

It is recommended to establish species-specific conservation points for rare and endangered medicinal plants as well as nationally protected species in the GKM, by taking effective protection measures such as installing boundary markers, fencing, remote monitoring systems, and educational signage to safeguard habitats and genetic resources. A case in point is Gymnadenia conopsea, an endangered traditional Mongolian medicinal plant with high medicinal value, and also an important folk medicinal-edible homologous plant, whose tubers are used for essential tonification, semen consolidation, and nourishing effects. Although listed as a national level II protected species, the wild populations of G. conopsea are critically depleted due to its low reproductive rates and anthropogenic pressures, which are far from meeting market demands. Researchers have predicted potential suitable habitat distributions for G. conopsea in China, indicating that the current high suitable habitat distribution in the GKM in northern China will significantly shrink under future climate change patterns, and gradually shift southwards [70]. The investigation on the resource of G. conopsea in Inner Mongolia also revealed that the Gogostai Hanwula National Nature Reserve located in the southern region and Bogd Mountain Forest Farm of East Ujimqin Banner of Xilin Gol League located in western region host the largest distributions and remaining populations [71]. Thus, these two areas should be designated as priority specific conservation points for G. conopsea.

Cultivation

Mongolian have the deep reverence for nature, with the philosophy of “taking from nature and giving back to nature”, emphasizing conservation and circular utilization of plant resources, which aligns seamlessly with the principles of agroecological cultivation, including cultivation practices for Chinese and Mongolian medicinal herbs. The investigations confirm that the GKM not only possess ideal conditions for such cultivation but also have a long history of the ecological cultivation of medicinal herbs [15, 16, 72]. To advance current efforts, the following strategies are critical: (1) Genetic innovation: Prioritize tissue culture and breeding of high-value species to build standardized germplasm hubs; (2) Wild-simulated cultivation: Expand in situ/ex situ techniques mimicking natural habitats to improve survival and yield; (3) Research-driven optimization: Address propagation, pest control, and climate resilience for scalable cultivation; (4) Germplasm conservation: Establish ex situ nurseries and repositories for controlled propagation; (5) Geo-authentic zones: Use suitability models to create regional bases preserving genetic integrity. By integrating these measures, the GKM can achieve sustainable utilization of its wild plant resources while maintaining ecological balance.

Rational harvesting

Our statistical results of the medicinal parts reveal a predominant reliance on the harvesting of whole plants and roots and rhizomes, which is consistent with previous regional surveys in this area [53, 54], and is not conductive to the regeneration and sustainable utilization of local wild plant resources used in TMM. Therefore, rational harvesting of medicinal plants appears to be extremely necessary.

The harvesting of medicinal plants needs to be reasonably regulated in three ways: time, method, and quantity. The harvesting time of medicinal plants should be based on the growth patterns of the plants, and harvesting during the reproductive period of the plants should be avoided as much as possible. Researchers have determined the optimal harvesting time for Mongolian medicinal plants by measuring the content of active ingredients at different periods [73,74,75]. For example, Wu et al. found that the content of quercetin in Oxytropis myriophylla harvested from June to September was higher than the standard requirement of 1.00 mg/g. Especially in mid-June, the content reached 5.80 mg/g, indicating the best quality, which is in line with the best harvest time recorded in the Mongolian medical literature in mid-June, Summer and mid-August, Autumn [75]. The most scientific and rational harvesting methods include simultaneous collection and breeding, and harvesting mature plants while preserving seedlings. Harvest quantities must respect a species regenerative capacity, remaining within renewable limits to adhere to sustainability principles. Establishing scientific harvesting protocols with appropriate timing, methods, and quantities, coupled with strengthened supervision of harvesting practices, is crucial to prevent overexploitation and ensure the protection and sustainable use of the wild plant resources.

Legal regulations and enforcement

The conservation of wild plant resources used in TMM of the GKM faces significant challenges due to the relatively weak legal frameworks, conservation awareness, and unregulated overharvesting. Legislative gaps in nature reserves and lax oversight further exacerbate habitat degradation and unsustainable exploitation. Addressing these issues requires urgent legal reforms, including the establishment of specific regulations and laws in this region tailored to safeguard local wild plants used in TMM, alongside stricter enforcement of existing laws such as CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), Regulations on the Protection and Management of Wild Medicinal Resources in China, and the National Key Conservation List for Wild Plants of China [64]. Integrating strengthened legal frameworks with proactive stewardship will ensure sustainable utilization of these ecologically and culturally critical medicinal resources.

Public education and science popularization

Public awareness of wild plants used in TMM remains inadequate, posing a significant challenge to conservation efforts. Targeted science education initiatives are essential to address this gap, particularly for rare, endangered, and nationally protected species. For instance, organizing a “Mongolian Medicinal Plant Science Exhibition” featuring plant specimens, medicinal applications, and conservation significance can engage communities and enhance local stewardship. Integrating knowledge of wild plants used in TMM into school curricula, developing specialized teaching materials, and organizing field trips to the GKM will deepen students’ understanding. Additionally, leveraging digital platforms to create short engaging videos, can broaden public outreach. These efforts will foster a sense of responsibility and empower communities to actively participate in preserving these invaluable wild plant resources.